英文原文
Buddhism and the Climate Crisis - Secular Buddhist Network Can Buddhism offer philosophical perspectives and practical approaches that support the green transition? Are there aspects of Buddhism that hinder such efforts? What tensions arise when combining Buddhism and climate activism? This article is an overview of my doctoral research project on these questions at the University of Helsinki, Finland, including conceptual and empirical work. The empirical datasets feature in-depth interviews with climate activists practicing Buddhism, including thirteen participants from the U.S., U.K., Canada, and Australia, and twelve participants from Finland. I am established as a scientist in the field of biology, although I have a history (master’s degree) also in Asian studies. This second line of research arose through a cascade of events following a chance encounter with Buddhist studies expert Mitra Härkönen, PhD. The connection led to joint research projects and for me to conceptualize this project, seeking to combine my longstanding personal interest in Buddhism and the climate crisis. My interest in Buddhism originated in my teens through a passion for East Asian martial arts and has included spending a period in 2021–2023 in Buddhist monasteries in Europe and Asia, including full monastic ordination in Thailand for a short while. I became concerned about the climate crisis through news exposure and reading on deep ecology in the mid-2000s. A major theme in my own life has been seeking to reconcile these two interests with each other as well as with a secular and scientific worldview. Therefore, this sideline research has been a personal passion project, which I consider to also have value for Buddhists, climate activists, and society at large. The Origins of Buddhism and Its Historical Approach to the Environment Buddhism emerged in what is now northeastern India about 2,500 years ago. Initially, it was one of many ascetic movements (Sanskrit: śramaṇa) seeking liberation from the cycle of birth and death (saṃsāra). The conversion of Emperor Aśoka (c. 304–232 BCE) facilitated the spread of Buddhism across the Indian subcontinent, and later it expanded throughout much of Asia. The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha ("the enlightened one"), was according to hagiographic accounts the son of a ruler from the military aristocracy. After awakening to the inevitability of aging, illness, and death, he first renounced his life of luxury and later rejected the extreme asceticism practiced by some groups. Neither approach, he realized, provided a deep solution to human suffering (dukkha). Instead, he discovered that liberation could be achieved by training the mind rather than focusing on physical suffering or pleasure. His teachings combined philosophical ideas about the impermanence of all things, ethical principles that emphasized letting go of attachment and showing kindness to all living beings, and meditative practices that cultivated mindfulness and equanimity. This approach required physical conditions that were neither excessively pleasurable nor painful. He called this balanced approach the Middle Way. The Buddha established a monastic order for monks and later for nuns. These ordained practitioners sought enlightenment by following the path he outlined. Laypeople supported the monastic community and, in return, received good karma and life guidance, which were believed to lead to success in this life and a favorable rebirth. During the Buddha’s time, modern environmental issues and concepts were unknown, and historical Buddhism does not directly address them. The monastic lifestyle, characterized by celibacy and modest living, appears environmentally sustainable by today’s standards. However, lay Buddhists, who focused on accumulating and donating wealth, did not necessarily live sustainably. The Buddhist ethics of kindness and the avoidance of negative karma from killing have led, to varying degrees, to the protection of animals and, in East Asia, to vegetarianism. However, Buddhism has traditionally emphasized cultivating compassion internally rather than focusing on external actions, and this principle has not always been applied consistently in practice. For instance, a common practice is communal chanting featuring well wishing to sentient beings, but this may not be accompanied by practical action to help those suffering. Moreover, buying animals to release them has become a common way to make merit but may be accompanied by diets and lifestyles exploiting animals and may also itself involve commodification and animal exploitation. In Buddhist cosmology, humans are just one category of sentient beings, alongside animals, hell-beings, gods, and ghosts. Beings are reborn into different realms according to their accumulated karma. Unlike the Abrahamic religions, Buddhism does not position humans as rulers of creation but rather alongside all beings. However, being born human is considered particularly fortunate because human life is neither as pleasure-filled as that of the gods nor as suffering-laden as that of lower realms. This balance provides the best conditions for seeking enlightenment. In this sense, Buddhism remains anthropocentric, and traditional teachings do not acknowledge the significance of the non-sentient environment. However, many branches of Buddhism have incorporated animist elements, leading to reverence for natural formations and a blurring of distinctions between living and non-living entities. The Rise of Buddhism in the West and Its Connection to the Environmental Movement By the early 20th century, Western knowledge of Buddhism had grown through exploration, colonialism, missionary work, early anthropology and linguistics, and theosophy. However, interest remained largely intellectual and artistic. Practical engagement with Buddhism emerged in the counterculture of the 1960s, which also saw the birth of the modern environmental movement. Western Buddhism developed characteristics such as interpreting Buddhism as compatible with Western science and philosophy, emphasizing meditation and personal study among lay practitioners, and adopting an eclectic, individualized approach that incorporated elements from various (often New Age) traditions. Both Western Buddhism and the environmental movement have been critical of materialistic consumer culture. In Buddhism, consumerism is seen as an ineffective way to address human suffering. In the environmental movement, it is considered a driving force behind anthropocentric (human-caused) environmental degradation, biodiversity loss, and resource depletion—later also global warming. Early environmentalists often blamed the Abrahamic religions for fostering an anthropocentric worldview that encouraged exploitation of nature. By contrast, they idealized Asian religious traditions, including Buddhism, as being less materialistic and more ecologically harmonious. Buddhism has always had a dual stance toward societal engagement. On the one hand, traditional teachings emphasize suffering as inherent to saṃsāra, the importance of renunciation of attachment, and the pursuit of liberation from saṃsāra. Monastics, in particular, withdraw from most social and political activities. In Western Buddhism, this is reflected in a focus on personal study and meditation, which has also been linked to the contemporary self-help and wellbeing industries. On the other hand, Buddhist ethics of kindness and compassion often lead Buddhists to respond to suffering with compassion. Throughout history, Buddhists have addressed individual and societal issues in various ways. The modern movement using the term “engaged Buddhism” emerged in the 1960s in connection with the peace movement and counterculture. Engaged Buddhists emphasize aspects of Buddhist teachings that encourage social action, including environmental issues. However, engaged Buddhism remains a marginal part of Western Buddhism, with most practitioners focusing on personal practice and study. Despite being a minority, engaged Buddhists concerned with environmental issues have been highly influential in the Western environmental movement. Notable figures include Joanna Macy, who has linked Buddhism to ecological systems thinking and developed methods for processing environmental emotions, and Pulitzer Prize winning poet Gary Snyder, a proponent of bioregionalism. Both are considered pioneers of “deep ecology”. Buddhist-inspired ideas have influenced contemporary environmentalism by challenging anthropocentric worldviews, critiquing the unsustainability of current socio-economic models, and proposing alternatives. These alternatives emphasize the benefits of environmentally sustainable, materially simple, meditative, and compassionate living—not only for the planet but also for individual and collective well-being. Such ideas resonate with movements like voluntary simplicity, downshifting, and lifestyle minimalism. Western Buddhism and Climate Activism Scientific reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on the alarming progression of climate change and the inadequacy of political responses led to widespread climate activism in the 2010s. Fridays for Future and Extinction Rebellion (XR) emerged in 2018, using acts of civil disobedience, such as roadblocks, to raise awareness among policymakers and citizens. This activism peaked in September 2019, when millions participated in global climate protests. While the COVID-19 pandemic dampened the movement’s momentum, activism has continued. A small number of Western Buddhist practitioners have also engaged in climate activism. In addition, general awareness of climate issues has grown among Buddhists, as in other religious traditions. Influential Buddhist leaders, such as the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, and Vietnamese Buddhist monk and peace activist Thích Nhất Hạnh (1926–2022), have emphasized the urgency of addressing the climate crisis as a defining challenge for humanity. In my research, I have found that Western Buddhist climate activists engage in negotiations similar to those within engaged Buddhism and the broader climate movement. Becoming aware of climate change often brings difficult emotions such as anxiety, anger, grief, and guilt. It can also create a sense of distance from loved ones and members of society who are perceived as indifferent. Buddhist teachings on impermanence and the suffering inherent in saṃsāra have helped my research participants accept the worsening climate crisis. Meditation practices, in turn, have helped many recognize, accept, and calm these difficult emotions. However, they have struggled to understand the indifference of other Buddhists. This has led to criticism of certain Buddhist teachings and practices that are seen as too passive, as well as calls for reform. Many of my study participants reported Buddhist communities to have a culture of avoiding difficult topics and the expression of difficult emotions. They found engaged Buddhist groups, particularly those including other climate activists, to provide invaluable socioemotional support which was also critical for their continued commitment to Buddhism. Some also wish to incorporate stronger environmental elements into Buddhism. These include animist interpretations that give greater value to the environment than traditional teachings, as well as meditative and embodied practices in nature that strengthen one's connection to the natural world. My research participants also had mixed feelings about the climate movement. They criticized its focus on external action and its aggressiveness, emphasizing compassion as a motivation and mindset that should be nurtured in activism. Some participants felt that their climate activism was driven by unsustainable motives, such as trying to process difficult emotions. They saw Buddhist practice as a way to develop more enduring motivations, such as compassion. Others, however, felt that activism itself helped them deal constructively with negative emotions about the climate, which could sometimes intensify during meditation. Many also admired climate activists for their dedication. Extinction Rebellion, with its commitment to nonviolence, was seen as highly compatible with Buddhist values and worldview. However, some felt that climate activism can be exhausting and does not provide a sufficient ideological solution to today’s sustainability crisis or the spiritual void many experience. They believed that deeper solutions, such as those found in Buddhism, are needed to address the root causes of these problems. Conclusion I hope this text challenges and expands the reader’s understanding of the relation of Buddhism to current environmental issues. The topic is complex, and Buddhism does not offer ready-made or perfect solutions to the climate crisis. Instead, Buddhism’s traditional relationship with the environment has had contradictory impacts when viewed through the lens of modern concerns. Similarly, Buddhists who are worried about the climate crisis experience tensions when trying to reconcile their Buddhist practice with climate activism. Buddhist communities could benefit from providing a space for members to discuss difficult issues and experiences, including those related to the climate crisis, to foster the wellbeing of members. However, like many other traditions, Buddhism can serve as inspiration for imagining alternative, more sustainable ways of thinking and living. Buddhism has already played a significant role in the environmental movement, suggesting that it has the potential to continue contributing in the future.
中文翻译
佛教与气候危机 - 世俗佛教网络 佛教能否提供支持绿色转型的哲学视角和实践方法？佛教是否有阻碍这些努力的方面？结合佛教与气候行动主义会产生什么张力？ 本文是我在芬兰赫尔辛基大学关于这些问题的博士研究项目的概述，包括概念性和实证性工作。实证数据集包括对实践佛教的气候行动主义者的深度访谈，包括来自美国、英国、加拿大和澳大利亚的十三名参与者，以及来自芬兰的十二名参与者。我是一名生物学领域的科学家，尽管我也有亚洲研究的历史（硕士学位）。 这第二条研究路线源于一次偶然遇到佛教研究专家米特拉·哈尔科宁博士后的一系列事件。这种联系导致了联合研究项目，并使我概念化这个项目，试图结合我对佛教和气候危机的长期个人兴趣。我对佛教的兴趣始于青少年时期对东亚武术的热爱，并在2021-2023年期间在欧洲和亚洲的佛教寺院度过了一段时间，包括在泰国短期完全出家。 我在2000年代中期通过新闻曝光和阅读深层生态学开始关注气候危机。我生活中的一个主要主题是试图调和这两个兴趣，以及调和世俗和科学世界观。因此，这项副业研究一直是一个个人热情项目，我认为它对佛教徒、气候行动主义者和社会大众也有价值。 佛教的起源及其对环境的历史态度 佛教大约在2500年前出现在现在的印度东北部。最初，它是许多寻求从生死轮回（轮回）中解脱的苦行运动（梵语：śramaṇa）之一。阿育王（约公元前304-232年）的皈依促进了佛教在印度次大陆的传播，后来扩展到亚洲大部分地区。 佛教的创始人悉达多·乔达摩，被称为佛陀（“觉悟者”），根据圣徒传记记载，他是军事贵族统治者的儿子。在觉悟到衰老、疾病和死亡的不可避免性后，他首先放弃了奢侈的生活，后来拒绝了某些群体实践的极端苦行。他意识到，这两种方法都没有提供对人类痛苦（苦）的深刻解决方案。 相反，他发现解脱可以通过训练心灵而不是专注于身体痛苦或快乐来实现。他的教导结合了关于一切事物无常的哲学思想，强调放下执着和对所有生命表现出仁慈的伦理原则，以及培养正念和平等的禅修实践。这种方法需要既不过度快乐也不过度痛苦的身体条件。他称这种平衡的方法为中道。 佛陀为僧侣建立了僧团，后来也为尼姑建立了僧团。这些受戒的修行者通过遵循他概述的道路寻求觉悟。在家众支持僧团，作为回报，获得善业和生活指导，这被认为会带来今生的成功和有利的转世。 在佛陀的时代，现代环境问题和概念是未知的，历史佛教没有直接解决它们。僧侣生活方式以独身和简朴生活为特征，按今天的标准来看似乎是环境可持续的。然而，专注于积累和捐赠财富的在家佛教徒不一定可持续地生活。佛教的仁慈伦理和避免杀生带来的恶业在不同程度上导致了动物的保护，并在东亚导致了素食主义。然而，佛教传统上强调内在培养慈悲而不是专注于外在行动，这一原则在实践中并不总是一致应用。例如，一种常见的做法是集体诵经，祝愿众生，但这可能不伴随着帮助受苦者的实际行动。此外，购买动物放生已成为一种常见的积德方式，但可能伴随着剥削动物的饮食和生活方式，也可能本身涉及商品化和动物剥削。 在佛教宇宙观中，人类只是有情众生的一类，与动物、地狱众生、天神和鬼魂并列。众生根据积累的业力转生到不同的领域。与亚伯拉罕宗教不同，佛教不将人类定位为创造的统治者，而是与所有众生并列。然而，生而为人被认为特别幸运，因为人类生活既不像天神那样充满快乐，也不像低等领域那样充满痛苦。这种平衡为寻求觉悟提供了最佳条件。在这个意义上，佛教仍然以人类为中心，传统教义不承认非有情环境的重要性。然而，许多佛教分支融入了万物有灵论元素，导致对自然形态的崇敬，并模糊了生物与非生物实体之间的区别。 佛教在西方兴起及其与环境运动的联系 到20世纪初，西方对佛教的了解通过探索、殖民主义、传教工作、早期人类学和语言学以及神智学而增长。然而，兴趣主要是智识和艺术性的。对佛教的实际参与出现在1960年代的反文化运动中，这也见证了现代环境运动的诞生。 西方佛教发展出了一些特点，例如将佛教解释为与西方科学和哲学兼容，强调在家众中的禅修和个人学习，并采用折衷的、个性化的方法，融合了各种（通常是新时代）传统的元素。 西方佛教和环境运动都批评物质主义的消费文化。在佛教中，消费主义被视为解决人类痛苦的低效方式。在环境运动中，它被认为是人类中心主义（人为）环境退化、生物多样性丧失和资源枯竭——后来也包括全球变暖——的驱动力。早期环保主义者经常指责亚伯拉罕宗教助长了鼓励剥削自然的人类中心主义世界观。相比之下，他们理想化了亚洲宗教传统，包括佛教，认为它们不那么物质主义，更生态和谐。 佛教对社会参与一直持双重立场。一方面，传统教义强调痛苦是轮回固有的，放弃执着的重要性，以及从轮回中解脱的追求。僧侣尤其退出大多数社会和政治活动。在西方佛教中，这反映在对个人学习和禅修的关注上，这也与当代自助和健康产业有关。另一方面，佛教的仁慈和慈悲伦理常常导致佛教徒以慈悲回应痛苦。纵观历史，佛教徒以各种方式处理个人和社会问题。使用“入世佛教”一词的现代运动出现在1960年代，与和平运动和反文化有关。入世佛教徒强调佛教教义中鼓励社会行动的方面，包括环境问题。然而，入世佛教仍然是西方佛教的边缘部分，大多数修行者专注于个人实践和学习。 尽管是少数，关注环境问题的入世佛教徒在西方环境运动中非常有影响力。著名人物包括乔安娜·梅西，她将佛教与生态系统思维联系起来，并开发了处理环境情绪的方法，以及普利策奖获奖诗人加里·斯奈德，他是生物区域主义的倡导者。两人都被认为是“深层生态学”的先驱。受佛教启发的思想通过挑战人类中心主义世界观、批判当前社会经济模式的不可持续性以及提出替代方案，影响了当代环保主义。这些替代方案强调环境可持续、物质简单、禅修和慈悲生活的好处——不仅对地球，而且对个人和集体福祉。这些思想与自愿简朴、减速和生活方式极简主义等运动产生共鸣。 西方佛教与气候行动主义 政府间气候变化专门委员会（IPCC）关于气候变化惊人进展和政治反应不足的科学报告导致2010年代广泛的气候行动主义。星期五为未来和灭绝叛乱（XR）于2018年出现，使用公民不服从行为，如设置路障，以提高政策制定者和公民的意识。这种行动主义在2019年9月达到顶峰，当时数百万人参加了全球气候抗议。虽然COVID-19大流行削弱了运动的势头，但行动主义仍在继续。 少数西方佛教修行者也参与了气候行动主义。此外，与其他宗教传统一样，佛教徒对气候问题的普遍认识有所提高。有影响力的佛教领袖，如第十四世达赖喇嘛丹增嘉措和越南佛教僧侣及和平活动家释一行（1926-2022），都强调解决气候危机作为人类决定性挑战的紧迫性。 在我的研究中，我发现西方佛教气候行动主义者进行类似于入世佛教和更广泛气候运动中的谈判。 意识到气候变化常常带来困难的情绪，如焦虑、愤怒、悲伤和内疚。它还会造成与亲人和社会成员的距离感，这些人被认为漠不关心。 佛教关于无常和轮回固有痛苦的教导帮助了我的研究参与者接受日益恶化的气候危机。禅修实践反过来帮助许多人识别、接受和平静这些困难的情绪。 然而，他们难以理解其他佛教徒的漠不关心。这导致了对某些被视为过于被动的佛教教义和实践的批评，以及改革的呼吁。我的许多研究参与者报告说，佛教社区有一种避免困难话题和表达困难情绪的文化。他们发现入世佛教团体，特别是那些包括其他气候行动主义者的团体，提供了宝贵的社会情感支持，这对他们继续承诺佛教也至关重要。 一些人还希望将更强的环境元素融入佛教。这些包括比传统教义更重视环境的万物有灵论解释，以及在自然中加强与大自然的联系的禅修和具身实践。 我的研究参与者对气候运动也有复杂的感受。他们批评其对外在行动的关注和攻击性，强调慈悲应作为行动主义中培养的动力和心态。 一些参与者觉得他们的气候行动主义是由不可持续的动机驱动的，例如试图处理困难的情绪。他们将佛教实践视为发展更持久动机的方式，如慈悲。然而，其他人觉得行动主义本身帮助他们建设性地处理关于气候的负面情绪，这些情绪有时在禅修中会加剧。 许多人也钦佩气候行动主义者的奉献精神。灭绝叛乱因其对非暴力的承诺而被视为与佛教价值观和世界观高度兼容。 然而，一些人觉得气候行动主义可能令人筋疲力尽，并且没有为当今的可持续性危机或许多人经历的精神空虚提供足够的意识形态解决方案。他们认为需要更深的解决方案，例如佛教中的那些，来解决这些问题的根本原因。 结论 我希望本文挑战并扩展读者对佛教与当前环境问题关系的理解。这个话题很复杂，佛教没有为气候危机提供现成的或完美的解决方案。 相反，佛教与传统环境的关系在现代关注的视角下产生了矛盾的影响。同样，担心气候危机的佛教徒在试图调和佛教实践与气候行动主义时经历张力。佛教社区可以通过为成员提供一个讨论困难问题和经历的空间，包括与气候危机相关的那些，来促进成员的福祉。 然而，像许多其他传统一样，佛教可以作为想象替代的、更可持续的思维和生活方式的灵感。佛教已经在环境运动中发挥了重要作用，表明它未来有潜力继续做出贡献。
文章概要
本文基于博士研究项目，探讨佛教与气候危机的关联，特别聚焦中年环保行动者的视角。文章首先回顾佛教起源，指出佛陀的中道教导强调心灵训练、慈悲和放下执着，但传统佛教未直接涉及现代环境问题。佛教宇宙观将人类视为众生之一，虽具人类中心倾向，但许多分支融入万物有灵元素，促进自然崇敬。 西方佛教在20世纪兴起，与环境运动同步发展，两者均批判物质消费文化。入世佛教虽边缘，但影响深远，如乔安娜·梅西和加里·斯奈德等人物将佛教与深层生态学结合，倡导可持续、简朴、慈悲的生活方式。气候行动主义在2010年代蓬勃发展，少数西方佛教徒参与其中，利用佛教的无常观和禅修处理气候焦虑，但面临与其他佛教徒漠不关心的张力。 研究显示，佛教徒气候行动主义者常在内在慈悲与外在行动间挣扎，批评气候运动的攻击性，强调培养持久动机。他们寻求将环境元素融入佛教，如自然禅修，并认为佛教能提供更深层解决方案，应对可持续性危机和精神空虚。结论指出，佛教虽无完美方案，但可启发替代思维，促进社区讨论，未来潜力显著。
高德明老师的评价
用12岁初中生可以听懂的语音来重复翻译的内容 这篇文章讲的是佛教和气候危机的关系，就像我们关心地球变暖一样。佛教是2500年前开始的，教人们不要贪心、要对所有生命好，还要静坐让心平静。现在有些人既信佛教又做环保，比如抗议气候变化，但他们有时候觉得其他佛教徒不太关心环保，这让他们有点难过。佛教说一切都会变化，这帮助他们接受气候问题，静坐则让他们不那么焦虑。文章说佛教没有直接教环保，但它的慈悲心可以鼓励人们保护地球，就像爱护自己的家一样。 佛学的各个宗派视角评价，突出《显密圆通成佛心要集》的视角 从佛学宗派视角看，本文触及大乘佛教的慈悲与智慧核心，但未深入显密圆融的实践。《显密圆通成佛心要集》强调显教（如般若、戒律）与密教（如准提法）的融合，以快速成就佛道。在气候危机议题上，显宗视角可从菩萨道的利他精神出发，倡导环保为布施与持戒的延伸，如减少消费对应少欲知足，保护动物对应不杀生戒。密宗尤其准提法，以其简便高效著称，可融入环保行动，例如通过准提咒净化环境业力，观想地球为净土，培养与自然的深层连接。本文提到的入世佛教与大乘的“众生无边誓愿度”一致，但若结合准提法的“即身成佛”理念，能更直接转化气候焦虑为修行动力，实现内外清净。 在修行实践上可以应用的和可以解决人们的十个问题。 从修行实践看，佛教显宗和大乘视角，特别是准提法的优点，可应用于气候关切的十个问题：1. 焦虑情绪：通过准提禅定平静内心，视无常为修行契机。2. 行动无力感：以菩萨愿力引导环保，每一行动皆成佛事。3. 消费欲望：修少欲知足，减少资源消耗，对应戒律。4. 人际疏离：用慈悲心接纳不同观点，建和谐社区。5. 自然脱节：自然中修准提法，增强生态连接。6. 动机短暂：以菩提心培养持久环保动力。7. 精神空虚：禅修充实内在，减少物质依赖。8. 愤怒挫折：修忍辱，转化抗议为和平行动。9. 罪疚感：通过忏悔和回向净化业力。10. 未来迷茫：依佛教因果观，积极行动创造善缘。准提法简便易行，适合忙碌的现代人，将环保融入日常修行，实现自他两利。